e.polis Fall 2025
Best Senior Capstone Seminar Paper in Urban Studies
Shades of Green: A Spatial Analysis of Tree Canopy Disparities in Milwaukee’s Urban Landscape
Isabella Wineke, B.A. Student, Urban Studies Programs, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee
Estimated reading time: 24 minutes
Introduction
Disparities in tree canopy and green space distribution across Milwaukee’s urban landscape are critical issues that intersect with many aspects of urban life, including social equity, environmental health, and community well-being. The unequal distribution of green spaces has far-reaching consequences, affecting everything from residents’ quality of life to larger environmental sustainability initiatives. Understanding these disparities is critical to addressing environmental justice issues and promoting equitable urban development.
This study poses several key questions that drive the research. First, it explores how disparities in green space availability impact social cohesion and community engagement. The presence or absence of green spaces can significantly influence social dynamics within communities. Access to parks, tree-lined streets, and other green areas fosters a sense of belonging and encourages outdoor activities that promote interaction among residents. Understanding the impact of unequal access to green spaces on social cohesion is essential for creating inclusive communities where all residents feel connected and valued. Second, the research examines the environmental and health ramifications of unequal access to green spaces. Green spaces play a crucial role in mitigating environmental hazards, improving air quality, and regulating temperatures in urban environments.
It’s important to acknowledge that access to nature has been linked to various health benefits, including reduced stress levels, improved mental well-being, and increased physical activity. Examining the environmental and health ramifications of disparities in green space distribution can provide insights into the broader public health and environmental justice implications of urban planning decisions. Finally, the study investigates how an understanding of these consequences can inform policy interventions to promote environmental justice and create more inclusive and sustainable urban environments. Policy interventions aimed at addressing disparities in green space distribution must be informed by a comprehensive understanding of the social, environmental, and health consequences of unequal access to green spaces. By leveraging research findings, policymakers can develop targeted strategies to rectify inequities, enhance social cohesion, and foster healthier, more resilient communities. Understanding the intersectionality of these issues is crucial for promoting environmental justice and creating inclusive and sustainable urban environments.
In terms of significance, this research has both local and global implications. At the local level, it addresses pressing concerns in Milwaukee regarding environmental justice and equitable urban development. By shedding light on the disparities in tree canopy and green space distribution, the study aims to inform local policymakers, planners, and community stakeholders about the need for targeted interventions to promote social equity and environmental sustainability. Moreover, insights from this study can inform similar challenges faced by urban areas worldwide. As cities grapple with rapid urbanization, climate change, and socio-economic disparities, understanding the importance of equitable access to green spaces becomes increasingly vital. By sharing research findings and best practices, cities can learn from one another and develop strategies to create healthier and more livable urban environments. Overall, this study has the potential to drive positive change at both the local and global levels by advocating for policies that prioritize environmental justice and community well-being.
Historical Contexts
Milwaukee’s urban landscape has been shaped by a complex tapestry of historical events, economic shifts, and social dynamics. As one of the major cities in the Midwest, Milwaukee witnessed significant growth and development during the 19th and 20th centuries, driven by factors such as industrialization, immigration, and suburbanization. These forces left an indelible mark on the city’s built environment and green spaces, influencing patterns of development and access to natural amenities.
At the heart of the city’s green space disparities lies the discriminatory practice of redlining, which emerged in the 1930s. Redlining systematically marginalized communities of color by categorizing neighborhoods based on racial composition and socio-economic factors. Areas deemed “hazardous” or “high-risk” for investment, often those with predominantly Black or immigrant populations, were systematically denied access to financial resources and infrastructure development. This institutionalized discrimination perpetuated cycles of disinvestment and neglect in these neighborhoods, resulting in fewer parks, playgrounds, and tree-lined streets compared to affluent areas.
Map of Milwaukee’s 1938 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation graded neighborhoods
The unequal distribution of green spaces has profound impacts on community health, well-being, and quality of life. Research has shown that access to green spaces is associated with various physical and mental health benefits, including reduced stress, improved air quality, and increased physical activity. However, communities with limited access to green spaces often experience higher rates of chronic illnesses, such as obesity and asthma, and face greater exposure to environmental hazards.
Furthermore, green spaces play a crucial role in fostering social cohesion and community engagement. Parks, playgrounds, and other natural amenities provide gathering spaces for residents to interact, socialize, and build relationships. They serve as focal points for community events, cultural celebrations, and recreational activities, strengthening social bonds and enhancing neighborhood pride.
Addressing disparities in green space distribution requires a multifaceted approach that addresses the root causes of inequality. This includes investing in the development and maintenance of green spaces in underserved neighborhoods, promoting community engagement and participation in decision-making processes, and implementing policies that prioritize equitable access to nature-based amenities for all residents.
By recognizing the importance of green spaces in promoting community health, social equity, and environmental sustainability, cities like Milwaukee can work towards creating more inclusive and resilient urban environments. Through collaborative efforts between government agencies, non-profit organizations, and community stakeholders, it is possible to build a future where all residents have equal opportunities to enjoy the benefits of green spaces, leading to healthier, happier, and more vibrant communities.
Literature Review
Environmental justice addresses the fair distribution of environmental benefits and burdens across all communities, regardless of race, income, or other social factors. In the context of urban forestry, tree canopy cover is an essential environmental benefit, contributing to reduced urban heat island effects, improved air quality, and enhanced quality of life. This research focuses on the city of Milwaukee, examining how historical practices like redlining have resulted in significant disparities in tree canopy cover between affluent, predominantly white neighborhoods and marginalized communities of color. The central research question is: How have historical redlining practices influenced current disparities in urban tree canopy cover in Milwaukee, and what policy interventions can promote equitable distribution of these environmental benefits? This study aims to fill a critical gap in the literature by connecting the historical context of redlining with contemporary environmental justice issues in urban forestry. By understanding these links, the research can inform policies and initiatives that promote equity and sustainability in urban environments.
The legacy of redlining has left an indelible mark on urban environments, particularly in the distribution of tree canopy cover. Foltman and Jones (2019) illustrate how neighborhoods deemed hazardous by the Home Owners’ Loan Corporation (HOLC) in the 1930s still suffer from significantly lower tree canopy cover today. This enduring disparity highlights the long-term consequences of discriminatory housing policies. Their study, which combines quantitative data with qualitative historical analysis, shows how past injustices shape current environmental conditions. Similarly, Heynen (2006) examines the socio-economic dynamics that influence the spatial distribution of environmental resources. He emphasizes the role of capital accumulation and land development in creating urban landscapes where environmental benefits are concentrated in affluent areas. This uneven distribution of resources demonstrates the broader socio-political processes that perpetuate environmental inequities. Together, these studies underscore the critical need to address historical injustices and ongoing socio-economic factors to achieve a more equitable distribution of urban tree canopy cover. By understanding the roots of these disparities, we can better inform policies and initiatives aimed at fostering environmental justice in urban settings. In cities like Richmond, California, where neighborhoods were systematically excluded from green improvements due to segregationist policies, organizations like Groundwork Richmond are leading efforts to increase green spaces in low-resource communities (Purtell, 2021).
Socio-economic and racial disparities in tree canopy cover are a critical issue within the broader context of environmental justice. Bullard (1990) provides a foundational perspective on environmental racism, demonstrating how communities of color disproportionately bear environmental burdens. His work is instrumental in framing the specific issue of tree canopy distribution, highlighting the systemic nature of these inequities. By analyzing pollution and resource deprivation in marginalized communities, Bullard’s research offers essential context for understanding current disparities in urban forestry. Communities of color often lack the political and economic power to advocate for green infrastructure, resulting in lower tree canopy cover and higher exposure to environmental hazards. Building on this, Szasz (1994) explores the intersection of race, class, and environmental degradation, providing a comprehensive overview of how socio-economic factors contribute to environmental inequality. His examination of systemic inequalities is crucial for grasping the multifaceted nature of environmental justice and addressing disparities in urban tree canopy cover. Szasz’s work emphasizes how socio-economic status can determine access to environmental benefits, with wealthier, predominantly white neighborhoods enjoying more robust green spaces and better air quality. This disparity not only affects environmental health but also impacts overall quality of life, as access to green spaces is linked to physical and mental well-being. Keil (2003) introduces a theoretical framework for urban political ecology, which is essential for understanding the socio-political dynamics that shape urban environments. His insights into capital accumulation and land development shed light on the processes driving the unequal distribution of environmental resources, including tree canopy cover. Keil argues that the development priorities of urban planners and policymakers often favor affluent areas, leading to a concentration of environmental amenities in these regions. This systemic bias perpetuates environmental inequities, leaving marginalized communities with fewer trees and greater environmental stressors. The implications of these disparities are far-reaching. Lower tree canopy cover in socio-economically disadvantaged and racially marginalized neighborhoods exacerbates urban heat island effects, reduces air quality, and limits the recreational and aesthetic benefits that green spaces provide. These environmental stressors can lead to higher incidences of health problems such as respiratory issues, heat-related illnesses, and mental health disorders. Furthermore, the lack of green spaces in these communities can reduce property values, limit economic opportunities, and perpetuate cycles of poverty and marginalization.
Addressing these disparities requires a multifaceted approach that includes policy changes, community engagement, and targeted investments in green infrastructure. Policies must be designed to ensure equitable distribution of environmental resources, prioritizing underserved neighborhoods for tree planting and maintenance programs. Community engagement is crucial for empowering residents to advocate for their needs and participate in decision-making processes. Targeted investments in green infrastructure can help bridge the gap, providing the environmental, economic, and social benefits of urban forestry to all communities. Together, the works of Bullard, Szasz, and Keil underscore the importance of addressing socio-economic and racial disparities to promote environmental equity in urban areas. By integrating these perspectives, we can develop more effective policies and interventions to ensure a fair distribution of urban greenery. Understanding the root causes of these disparities is essential for creating sustainable, inclusive, and healthy urban environments for all residents.
In exploring the intricate tapestry of environmental inequality, various methodological approaches have emerged, each shedding light on different facets of this complex phenomenon. Rindfuss and Stearn (1998) advocate for an integrated approach that marries remote sensing technology with social science data, offering a nuanced understanding of human-environment interactions. By combining quantitative canopy cover analysis with qualitative interviews, researchers gain both the statistical rigor and the lived experiences necessary to grasp the disparities in urban tree canopy cover. This methodological synergy not only enhances the robustness of research findings but also paves the way for more informed policy interventions aimed at addressing environmental injustices in urban landscapes. Heynen’s mixed-methods strategy echoes Rindfuss and Stearn’s approach, emphasizing the importance of triangulating quantitative analysis with qualitative insights. By integrating these complementary methods, researchers can uncover hidden dimensions of environmental inequality, validating interpretations and amplifying the voices of marginalized communities (Heynen, year). Moreover, Di Chiro (1996) introduces an intersectional lens to environmental justice, recognizing the interconnectedness of race, class, gender, and environmental degradation. This perspective highlights how multiple axes of identity intersect to shape patterns of environmental inequality, underscoring the need for holistic policies that address the diverse needs of marginalized populations. In synthesizing the methodological approaches advocated by Rindfuss and Stearn, Heynen, and Di Chiro, researchers can adopt a comprehensive framework that embraces both quantitative rigor and qualitative depth while acknowledging the intersecting social identities that underpin environmental injustices. By doing so, scholars not only deepen our understanding of environmental inequality but also contribute to the development of more equitable and inclusive urban environments. As we navigate the complexities of environmental injustice, integrating diverse methodological approaches becomes imperative in shaping a more just and sustainable future for all.
In delving deeper into the nuances of environmental inequality, it’s crucial to incorporate insights from local sources alongside academic literature. Reports from local government initiatives, such as those focused on urban forestry in Milwaukee, offer practical perspectives on ongoing efforts to tackle canopy cover disparities. These documents provide valuable context, shedding light on the specific challenges and initiatives within the community. Similarly, local newspaper articles serve as a rich source of real-time information, capturing public awareness and community responses to environmental justice issues. These articles complement academic research by providing current, on-the-ground developments and perspectives. Emmanuel’s (1997) examination of the racial and socioeconomic dimensions of urban forestry in Milwaukee offers a historical lens, uncovering discriminatory practices embedded in urban planning. By contextualizing environmental disparities within Milwaukee’s unique history, Emmanuel’s work enhances our understanding of the long-term impacts of policy decisions on environmental equity. Additionally, Schmid’s (1975) analysis of ecological disturbances and Lynch’s (2022) recent exploration of urban political ecology both contribute to the broader historical and contemporary understanding of urban environmental changes in Milwaukee. Schmid’s historical context provides a foundation for understanding the evolution of environmental challenges, while Lynch’s up-to-date insights offer a contemporary perspective on ongoing environmental justice struggles within the city. By integrating insights from local reports, newspaper articles, and secondary sources, researchers can develop a more comprehensive understanding of environmental inequality in Milwaukee. This interdisciplinary approach not only enriches academic analysis but also fosters a deeper engagement with local communities and their environmental concerns. Ultimately, by synthesizing diverse perspectives, researchers can contribute to the development of more effective and inclusive strategies for addressing environmental injustices in urban environments like Milwaukee.
Despite the wealth of existing literature on environmental inequality, several notable gaps persist, warranting further investigation. Firstly, while historical and socio-economic dimensions have been extensively studied, there’s a dearth of recent case studies documenting the evolving landscape of urban forestry policies and their ramifications on marginalized communities. As urban environments evolve and socio-political dynamics shift, understanding the contemporary implications of these policies is paramount for informing effective interventions. Moreover, while broader discussions on urban political ecology abound, there remains a noticeable gap in the literature concerning specific policy interventions aimed at mitigating tree canopy disparities. While identifying systemic issues is crucial, actionable solutions are equally essential for effecting meaningful change. Therefore, there’s a pressing need for research that delves into the efficacy of targeted policy measures in addressing environmental inequities at the local level. This study aims to bridge these gaps by conducting a comprehensive analysis of contemporary policy initiatives in Milwaukee, focusing specifically on their impact on promoting environmental equity. By examining the intricacies of local policies and their implementation, this research seeks to provide insights into both the successes and shortcomings of current approaches. Through this endeavor, we aspire to contribute to the growing body of knowledge on environmental justice and inform evidence-based policy interventions that prioritize the needs of marginalized communities.
The literature reveals a consistent pattern of environmental inequity rooted in historical and socio-political processes. Addressing these disparities in urban tree canopy cover requires a multifaceted approach that includes policy interventions, community engagement, and a commitment to environmental justice. By centering the voices and needs of marginalized communities, urban planners and policymakers can work towards creating more equitable and sustainable urban environments. This literature review provides a structured overview of key texts relevant to the research topic, summarizing their contributions and assessing their relevance to the study. It highlights the need for addressing historical legacies and socio-economic disparities to promote environmental equity in urban forestry. By bridging gaps in the literature, this research will contribute to developing effective strategies for creating more just and inclusive urban spaces.
Methodology
The research methodology employed in this study embodies a thorough exploration into the examination of tree canopy and green space disparities within Milwaukee’s urban neighborhoods. The objective is to uncover the multifaceted impact of these disparities on various societal dimensions, including social dynamics, environmental health, and community stewardship. To accomplish this, a comprehensive mixed-methods approach is adopted, drawing insights from methodological frameworks utilized by Davis in their seminal studies. This approach aims to bridge critical gaps in environmental justice scholarship, particularly focusing on understanding the experiences of marginalized communities.
The study focuses on three sample census blocks in Milwaukee, namely “Rufus King,” “Midtown,” and “Bay View,” chosen based on their similarities in demographic and environmental factors. Each census block presents unique challenges and opportunities concerning tree canopy cover and socioeconomic conditions. Through the analysis of these sample census blocks, the study aims to forecast nuanced patterns of environmental inequality and evaluate the effectiveness of current policy initiatives in addressing these disparities. By meticulously examining demographic data, tree canopy metrics, and socio-economic indicators, the research seeks to anticipate potential trends and identify proactive strategies for promoting environmental equity in diverse urban contexts like Milwaukee.
Drawing from Davis’s methodological emphasis on integrating quantitative analysis with qualitative insights, the study incorporates advanced spatial analysis techniques, such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS), to map out the spatial patterns of tree canopy cover across Milwaukee’s neighborhoods. Central to this approach is the utilization of GIS to analyze satellite imagery and spatial data, enabling the precise measurement and mapping of tree canopy cover across the city. GIS technology facilitates the creation of detailed maps that visually depict the distribution of tree canopy cover, allowing for spatial patterns and disparities to be identified with high accuracy.
In addition to GIS analysis, the study integrates various census datasets to augment the understanding of socio-economic and demographic factors influencing tree canopy distribution. Data on median household income estimates by census tract, sourced from the City of Milwaukee office of Equity and Inclusion, provide crucial insights into the socio-economic profiles of different neighborhoods. By overlaying census data with tree canopy maps, correlations between socio-economic indicators and tree canopy cover can be discerned, elucidating the influence of factors such as income levels and racial composition on green space access. Furthermore, race and income data at the neighborhood level are obtained from Justice Map, a platform that facilitates the visualization of racial and income disparities across urban landscapes. By incorporating this data into the analysis, the study aims to explore the intersectionality of race, class, and access to green spaces within Milwaukee. Moreover, the study utilizes historical aerial views and satellite imagery to track changes in tree canopy cover over time. By comparing historical data with contemporary satellite imagery, trends in tree canopy loss or gain can be identified, providing insights into the dynamics of urban forestry and land use change. This longitudinal analysis offers valuable context for understanding the evolution of tree canopy distribution within Milwaukee’s urban landscape and the factors driving these changes.
Image 1: A snapshot of W Lisbon Ave and N 29th Street, in West Milwaukee
Complementing the quantitative spatial analysis, the study incorporates qualitative methods to contextualize the findings within broader socio-economic and historical contexts. Thematic analysis of literature and policy documents provides insights into the historical trends and policy frameworks shaping urban forestry initiatives in Milwaukee. Additionally, qualitative interviews pulled from local newspapers and articles featuring community leaders and stakeholders offer perspectives on the socio-economic determinants of tree canopy distribution and the barriers to equitable access to green spaces. By triangulating findings from quantitative spatial analysis, census data, and qualitative insights, the study ensures a comprehensive understanding of tree canopy and green space disparities in Milwaukee. This multi-faceted approach allows for the identification of socio-environmental dynamics at play, including the influence of socio-economic factors, historical legacies, and policy interventions on green space access.
In conclusion, the research methodology represents a meticulous and comprehensive endeavor to examine tree canopy and green space disparities in Milwaukee’s urban neighborhoods. By integrating quantitative and qualitative data sources and adopting an environmental justice framework, the study aims to contribute to the discourse on urban environmental justice and inform policy interventions for promoting equitable access to green spaces and fostering community resilience.
Analysis
The study’s findings underscore a critical need for proactive advocacy and concerted efforts within Milwaukee’s political landscape to rectify historical injustices and address contemporary disparities in resource allocation, particularly concerning the equitable distribution of tree canopy cover. The data reveals entrenched environmental inequalities, with certain communities bearing a disproportionate burden of socio-economic challenges compounded by limited access to green spaces and their associated benefits. These findings highlight the urgency of advocating for change within Milwaukee’s political sphere, emphasizing the imperative to rectify past discrimination and mitigate persisting disparities.
One avenue for such advocacy involves forging strategic collaborations with key entities like the Office of Equity and Inclusion at the City of Milwaukee. By leveraging these partnerships, principles of equity and inclusion can be infused into policy-making processes, ensuring that resource allocation and infrastructure development prioritize historically marginalized neighborhoods. This entails advocating for policies that dismantle systemic barriers and address the historical legacies of discrimination while promoting inclusive urban development that fosters community resilience and well-being.
Additionally, fostering genuine and inclusive dialogues with residents residing in neighborhoods grappling with significant health burdens due to their physical environment emerges as a crucial imperative. Engaging directly with community members offers invaluable insights into their experiences, concerns, and aspirations. By embracing a participatory approach that centers the voices of those most affected, policymakers can co-design solutions that resonate with the specific challenges faced by marginalized communities, empowering residents to advocate for their rights and fostering a sense of ownership in shaping their surroundings.
In essence, advocating for change requires a multifaceted, holistic, and sustained approach that engages government agencies, community organizations, and residents alike. By amplifying the voices of those most affected by environmental injustices and advocating for policy changes at both the institutional and grassroots levels, advocates can drive meaningful progress towards creating more equitable and inclusive urban environments in Milwaukee. This necessitates a commitment to addressing systemic inequities, dismantling barriers to access and opportunity, and fostering collaborations that prioritize the well-being of all residents, regardless of their socio-economic status or zip code. Such a paradigm shift in policy-making processes, wherein equity and justice are guiding principles, is essential to shaping the future of Milwaukee’s urban landscape.
Conclusion
In the heart of Milwaukee’s urban sprawl lies a stark reality: the unequal distribution of tree canopy and green spaces, a pressing challenge demanding immediate action. This study has highlighted the significant impact of these disparities on social cohesion, environmental health, and community well-being. By addressing the research questions outlined earlier, the study has shed light on the complex socio-environmental dynamics at play in shaping urban green spaces.
The findings of this study underscore the need for proactive advocacy and policy interventions aimed at promoting environmental justice and creating more equitable urban environments. By prioritizing equity and inclusion in policy-making processes, Milwaukee can work towards rectifying historical injustices and mitigating contemporary disparities in green space distribution.
Although the scale of the project was a small dent in a much larger research project, this study’s methodology offers a blueprint for future research endeavors seeking to examine environmental inequality in urban settings. By integrating quantitative and qualitative research methods, researchers can gain a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying factors contributing to green space disparities and develop targeted strategies for addressing them.
In terms of policy implications, this study highlights the importance of investing in the development and maintenance of green spaces in marginalized communities, promoting community engagement and participation in decision-making processes, and implementing policies that prioritize equitable access to nature-based amenities for all residents. By leveraging research findings to inform policy interventions, Milwaukee can work towards creating healthier, more resilient, and more inclusive urban environments for all residents.
Appendix
Additional Data Used
Map 1: National Archives. (n.d.). Map of Milwaukee’s 1938 Home Owners’ Loan Corporation graded neighborhoods. National Archives and Records Administration. https://www.archives.gov/
Map 2: Wineke, I. (Ed.). (2023). Tree Canopy versus People of Color: Is there a correlation? Tree Equity Score. https://www.treeequityscore.org/map#10/43.073/-87.9533
Map 3: Wineke, I. (Ed.). (2023). Health Burden Index of Milwaukee Sample Locations. Tree Equity Score. https://www.treeequityscore.org/map#10/43.073/-87.9533
Map 4: Wineke, I. (Ed.). (2023). Disparity of Milwaukee Sample Locations. Tree Equity Score. https://www.treeequityscore.org/map#10/43.073/-87.9533
Map 5: Wineke, I. (Ed.). (2023). Tree Canopy Cover of Milwaukee Sample Locations. Tree Equity Score. https://www.treeequityscore.org/map#10/43.073/-87.9533
Map 6: Wineke, I. (Ed.). (2023). People of Color of Milwaukee Sample Locations. Tree Equity Score. https://www.treeequityscore.org/map#10/43.073/-87.9533
Table 1:
| “Rufus King” | “Midtown” | “Bay View” | |
| Census Block Number | 550790043004 | 550791861001 | 550790207004 |
| Population | 846 | 794 | 724 |
| Priority | Highest | High | None |
| Tree Equity Ranking | 539th of 567 | 435th of 567 | 1st of 567 |
| Current Canopy Cover | 21% | 21% | 42% |
| Tree Canopy Goal | 50% | 40% | 40% |
| Linguistic Isolation | 0% | 1% | 0% |
| Health Burden Index | 52 | 74 | 29 |
| Heat Disparity | +5.1 F | +5.1 F | -2.1 F |
| People in Poverty | 38% | 87% | 15% |
| Unemployment | 16% | 4% | 4% |
| People of Color | 97% | 87% | 10% |
| Children and Seniors | 32% | 32% | 31% |
References
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